The Wetlands of the Indo-Gangetic Plains

Originating from the eastern edge of the Aravalli hills in Alwar and Jaipur, and bounded by the northern end of the Vindhyan ranges in Karauli, the fertile, alluvial plains slope gently towards the east and north-east. The Chambal, a tributary of the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhyan ranges in Madhya Pradesh and forms their easter boundary in Rajasthan. The almost imperceptible slopes consist of sand, silt and mud washed down over millions of years from the Arawalli and Vindhyan hills.
This flat, almost featureless region is a part of the great Indo-Gangetic plains. Satellite pictures of the terrain indicate that the area once formed part of the river bed of the Yamuna before it changed its course. The region continues to be watered by the Banganga and Gambhiri rivers that originate in the Aravalli and Vindhyan hills respectively and flow into the Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh. The terrain is so flat that these rivers cease flowing, spread out, merge and disappear into the flood plains. During a good monsoon, most of the area is inundated. Travelling by train through this area on one such occasion. I was amazed by the vast expanse of the water spread. It felt as though the train was moving through a vast body of water. Because of the annual flooding, even the railway track is land a few metres above ground level.
Historic as well as mythological associations with this region abound. A part of the regions is known as Brij-bhumi and is believed to be the land where Lord Krishna spent his early childhood. Mathura, where he was born, also forms part of Brij-bhumi though it falls in the neighbouring state of Uttar Pradesh. Legends make mention of the richness and variety of animal, bird and plant life including the lofty kadamb (Mitragyna parviflora) trees on the banks of rivers and swamps infested with snakes and reptiles, and the babul (Acacia nilotica) and kareel (Capparts deciduas) trees that grew in the pastures, where Krishna grazed his cows.
When the 16th century battle of Khanua was fought between Babur and Rana Sangha, the area was covered with jungles and dry prairie lands that sheltered a large population of antelopes and other wild animals. Later, the forests were cleared for cultivation and human settlements. Late in the 17th century, with the decline of the Mughal empire, Bharatpur emerged as an independent Jat state and remained so for over a hundred years. After two sieges in the early-19th century, the state came under British rule.
The soil is highly productive, and farming of mustard, wheat and gram is widespread. The region now provides support to a number of villages and town making the flood-plains of Bharatpur among the most thickly populated parts of the state. Most of the natural vegetation of the region has been lost. Despite this, the region also harbours among the world’s best known and most valuable wildlife protected areas. The Keoladeo Ghana national park, Bharatpur, where both vegetation and wildlife are protected by the state government, is now an acknowledged World Heritage site. And the contribution of the National Chambal sanctuary in coming to the rescue of the once highly endangered gbarial and marsh crocodile is known to conservationists around the world.
The opportunities for developing the potential of the shallow depressions of Ghana were first felt by Prince Harbhamji of Morvi, Gujarat, when serving as a regent to the infant Kishan Singh of Bharatpur, in 1899. during his education in England, the prince had taken a fancy for duck shoots. In order to attract wildfowl in the area, he increased the water holding capacity of the depressions by constructing bunds and dykes. These newly created, shallow lakes were filled with water released from Azan bund.
The first big shoot was organized in December, 1902 when the Viceroy, Lord Curzon, along with Lord Kitchner and their party shot 540 birds using 17 guns. Following this, duck shoots became a regular feature that were organized in honour of important British and Indian guests. Enormous numbers of birds were slaughtered, a record of which is engraved on stone plaques near Keoladeo temple. The largest number of birds (4,273) were bagged by Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy and Governor-General of India, in November, 1938. The party consisted of 39 guns. Hundreds of thousands of ducks were shot before the sport was stopped in 1972. Although the Maharaja had handed over the area to the state forest department on independence, and the area had been notified a sanctuary by the state government in 1956, the royal family had retained shooting rights over the area under the special privilege granted by a covenant. These rights and privileges were withdrawn in 1972 by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
On a visit to the sanctuary, Indira Gandhi found that a busy road connecting Bharatpur with Agahapur passed through it. A naturalist herself, she suggested that traffic be diverted away from the sanctuary, and provided the appropriate funding for the purpose. It was also at her initiative and persuasion that the sanctuary was raised to the level of a national park in 1982. The marshes of Bharatpur that had been created as shooting reserve by the rulers of Bharatpur, now had the appropriate infrastructure for a potential world Heritage park.
Keoladeo Ghana national park covers an area of 29 sq km. The marshy portion varies every year depending on the availability of water, though the dry spread is usually at least twice that of the marshes. The vegetation of this dry region too varies considerably. The beautiful kadam (Mytragyna panifolia) groves provide nestling sites for cotton teal, comb duck and parakeet, while the babul woodlands are home to the babul (Acacia nilotica), ronj (Acacia leucopbolae) and beens (Capparis sepiaria). The babul trees provide nesting material for painted storks and open-billed storks. The change in the dry land vegetation to bushes and mid-sized trees consisting of ber and beens is favoured by white-breasted water hens, doves and shrikes. In the Keladhar area, the vegetation changes to dry prairie with its few groves of trees favoured by larks, chats and buntings. The short-toed eagle and black winged kite are also seen here. It is also a good habitat for blackbuck and nilgai.
Water is drawn for the marshy eco-system from Ajan bund through Ghana canal. Ajan bund is a flood control dam. Water is allowed to stand here for some time before being drained into the park. This allows the soil to absorb water so that the crop grown on it does not need subsequent irrigation. With the harnessing of the waters of the Gambhiri at Panchana in Karauli, the flow of water in the river has reduced and is likely to adversely effect the water supply of the park. Against a total requirement of 540 million cubic feet of water, the park now gets about 350 mcft in a normal rainfall year. Even this quantity is likely to be reduced because of the Panchana dam.
In years of scanty rain, there isn’t enough water in Ajan bund to fill all the blocks, resulting a a shrinkage of the aquatic habitat. Drought years like 1979, 1986 and 1987 saw the habitat barely kept alive by pumping water from tubewells specially commissioned to meet the situation. Most migratory birds dispersed to other waterbodies but it proved a particularly hard time for the Siberian cranes that found tubers difficult to pull out from its dry feeding sites.
Storks, cormorants, egrets, herons, darters and spoonbills come here to breed during the monsoons. In 1983, when grazing was disallowed in the park, the decision was criticized by some conservators who though the excessive growth of paspalum grass would adversely effect the efficiency of the birds in catching fish, and therefore effect their breeding. The birds proved them wrong. A count of the nests in the park that year revealed that over 12,000 nests had been built by the different species. The largest number were built by shags, followed by painted storks, little commorants, medium egrets, little egrets, white ibises and open-billed storks, large egrets etc.
An abundant and assured supply of food for their young chicks, who are voracious eaters, is considered necessary by the birds. I have observed, in 1986 and 1987, that in drought years these birds do not breed, even though they may arrive in the park and some of them even start the construction of the nests and then not breed. The birds, it seems, are able to sense the failure of the monsoon, and the consequent shortage of food.
The open-billed storks arrive in the second or third week of June and take possession of the crown of the babul trees. These are grayish-white birds with some black on the wings. Their peculiar bill with its arching mandibles that have an open gap is a diagonostic feature of the species. Their curiously shaped bill is best suited for their main diet of large mollusks. With the onset of the rains, these birds start building their nests. The males begin to court the females. The breeding plumage turn the dull grey portions of the bird’s body into a shining white. By the end of July, hundreds of open-billed storks have made their nests on the babul trees. By the end of July, eggs become visible in the nests, each bird normally laying three-four eggs coloured a dull white. During this period, the storks feed on mollusks, snails and frogs, searching for them in small puddles in the woodlands.
With the release of water from Ajan bund, an enormous quantity of fish enter the lakes of Keoladeo. It takes four-six week to fill the lakes. Water lilies spread and bloom. The spread of this lily is most extensive in a normal rainfall year that immediately follows a drought year. The lily, Nypbea boucbeli, is called kumudini in Hindi: its tender white flowers open in the cool of the night but close in the morning, after sunrise.
The open-billed storks induce the other birds to start building nests too. Soon, the egrets, grey herons, night herons, little cormorants, Indian shag, darters and others begin their nest building activities. Thought the site and location of the nests may differ from tree to tree, depending on the availability of space, a loose pattern of preferred sites becomes obvious. My observations is that cormorants and egrets make their nests in the lower branches of the babul, darters occupy the next level, while open-billed storks take the highest branches. All trees are fully occupied by different species of birds without any colour bar. The nesting of egrets, cormorants and darters on the same tree attracts the attention of visitors because of their conspicuous black and white colours. Some trees are fully covered with nests. I have seen over a hundred nests comprising of eight species of birds on a single tree. However, white ibises, painted storks and large cormorants tend to nest in more exclusive breeding colonies. The white ibis builds its nests close to each other’s making them look like a common platform.
Nest building is a tedious task, particularly in view of the perpetual shortage of nesting material. With over 12,000 nests to be built in a short span of 30-40 days, this is understandable. Fierce quarrels break out between neighbours when one is found stealing a twig or some other nesting material from another.
As the birds busy themselves with courting, next building and incubating of eggs, the nesting colonies fall silent. The only sounds to be heard are the flapping or wings or the clattering of bills. The atmosphere in the heronry changes with the hatching of the eggs. The air is now charged with the sounds of the perpetually hungry nestlings. The fishing activities of the parent birds increase manifold. In the community feeding by egrets and cormorants, large flocks of egrets can be seen fishing together, while the cormorants actually drive the fish collectively when moving in the marshes.
In the early stages of courtship, the breeding plumage of the egrets looks splendid. The males display their lacy, filigreed plumes to attract the females. All egrets, with the exception of the cattle egret, are white, but the arrangement of their plumes and the colour of their faces and legs, are useful indicators in the identification different species. The large egrets, which are comparatively less gregarious, have flowing mantles of long delicate plumes which are raised and fanned by the breeze. A salient feature of the large egret is tht their breeding plumage appears only for a short time and starts disappearing once the courtship is over. Observing the courtship display of these birds is interesting. The male fans its plumes to arouse its mate. The birds exchange greetings, touch each others bills, and entwine their necks.
Median egrets have plumes on their throat and back. During the breeding phase, the irises of the make bird are a dark orange red compared to the female’s orange. The facial and orbital skins of both sexes are lemon-yellow with a greenish tinge on the area immediately in front of the eye. There is more green in the female’s facial skin than in that of the male. Their breaks are black.
Little egrets come next to them in the order of their breeding. These egrets court by bowing, their plumes become erect, and their facial and orbital skins turn coral pink. After the display the colour of the skin return to a pale grayish one. During courtship, their feet are a shining yellow, as if nature intended them to wear yellow socks.
Cattle egrets resemble the little egrets but a distinctive feature in the non-breeding season is their yellow bill. Cattle egrets do not have long plumes but the additional colours add to their finery. Their head, neck and back glow an orange gold, while the facial skin and eyes become blood red during courtship. Their nest on the lower branches of the babul seems an untidy structure of twigs. By the first week of August, the eggs have been laid in the nest. A normal clutch is of three-five eggs, a pale skimmed-milk in colour. After laying the eggs, for 17 to 22 days, the male and female alternately incubate them. The chicks are cream coloured. After hatching, the adults discard the empty shells by dropping them over the side of the nest.
Darters, large cormorants, little cormorants, Indian shag and white ibis, all build their nests on the babul. A cluster of four-five darter nests can be seen at distances of a foot or two from each other. An interesting feature is that the young of these black birds are downy white when they hatch, changing to light brown as they grow older, and a darker brown by the time they start flying. Cormorants and Indian shags are also black, like the darter, but their young are also black. Their nests are untidy platforms made using sticks. The snake bird or darter is recognizable by its slender, snake-like, velvety brown neck, narrow head and pointed dagger bill. Although it spends much of its time in water, its plumage, unlike the ducks, is not water proof. After swimming in the water, it needs to dry its bedraggled feathers. The darter is a perfect swimmer and it is an experience watching it hunt its prey. It lunges out for a fish, raises its bill above the water surface and tosses the fish up in the air, catching it as it falls perfectly down its beak.
Many people find it difficult to differentiate between the three species of cormorants. The little cormorant has a small, white patch on its throat and a crest on the back of the head. The large cormorant is the size of a domestic duck with a grayish-white patch on the head and neck in the breeding season. The Indian shag could easily be confused with these two. In the breeding season, it has a tuft of white feathers behind the eyes and some white speckles on the head and neck.
The white ibis is white in colour except for its bill and legs which are black. It prefers to nest in colonies. During the breeding season, an appealing red colour appears on the side of its wings.
Herons locate their nesting sites in colonies, along with cormorants. Herons are recognizable from a distance because of their long, slender S-shaped neck. During the breeding season, the grey herons develops a bright, orange-red beak and orange-yellow legs, and a black occipital crest develops on the head. Similarly, purple herons wear a brighter plumage during the breeding season. Both herons favour aquatic areas with grassy patches but while the purple hereon establishes a separate colony away from the other birds, the grey hereon proves itself less fastidious, building its nest on trees along with other water birds. The comparatively smaller, more beautiful night hereon nests with colonies of other water birds but make its own nest in the thicker, inner parts of the trees. A long crest appears on its head during the breeding period, and the eyes turn a deeper red.
In the last week of august, painted storks start looking for trees on which to build their nests. The painted stork shares its trees with spoonbills. Though painted storks have no special breeding plumage, the new arrivals look specially colourful and bright. During this period, the black band across the breast and the striking, delicate rose pink feathers near the tail combine with its white colour to enhance its beauty. Once the birds choose the nesting sites, they stand there almost constantly. Both male and female share the work of nest making. The male brings babul twigs and hands them to the female who places it on the platform. The nest is a large platform made of sticks, and has shallow depression lined with stems and leaves of water weeds or grasses.
This is also the time when the spoonbills shed their cream colour and turn white, and wear the shaggy crests. Although both male and female spoonbills develop crests, that of the male looks slightly bigger and heavier than that of the female. Besides, a red spot appears in both of the lower foreneck, just below the bill. In males, this spot is darker and brighter. The spatula shaped, distinctive bill of this bird is its salient feature, it is black and yellow, broad and flat, and ends in a widened spatula.
After mid-September, young chicks are visible in the nests of the painted storks and spoonbills,. Little activity is observed while the eggs are being hatched, but once the chicks start growing, their demand for food increases. Both parents bring fish for the chicks, regurgitating the half digested meal on the floor of the nest where it is greedily devoured by the chicks.
By the end of October, all the young birds, with the exception of he painted storks and spoonbills, have started flying By November, the young spoonbills have also taken flight, while the late-breeding painted stork can be seen looking after their young even up to the last week of November.
One August morning, I pushed a boat with the help of a long bamboo through a shallow, weed-choked portion of the lake, when I sported a bronze-winged jacana with two chicks. On seeing the boat, the jacana first hid the chicks under its wings, but as the boat kept moving ahead, the bird walked away holding its chicks pressed between its wings, their long legs and toes dangling below the mother’s wings. The jacana had used an unorthodox way in avoiding danger to its chicks.
Jacanas are peculiar birds that have evolved a life of their very own in the marshes. With their enormously long legs and almost equally long, straight toes, they walk freely over the thin floating vegetation and even over the lily leaf pads. Inconspicuous from a distance because of its metallic green colour, it is not easy to spot even when running around over the floating vegetation. It makes its nest in high, thick grass. The nest is a pad of twisted weed stems placed on floating, aquatic vegetation. The ordinary looking nest is a marvelous example of the engineering skills of the bird,. It is well anchored to help it stay in place, even in flowing water. The floating mass helps to retain the nest above water when the water level rises after heavy rains. If, at any stage, the nest is found unsuitable or unsafe, the male transfers the eggs using its beak, to another nest built by him. The female of the species is larger than the male, and is polyandrous. She usually lays four bronze eggs and stays with the male only till the eggs are laid on a floating nest. As soon as the eggs are laid, she moves off in search of another mating partner. In one season, she may mate with three to four males in a row. The entire responsibility o incubation of the eggs and parental care for the chicks is the sole responsibility of the male bronze-winged jacana.
The other species of jacana in the park is the pheasant-tailed jacana, a handsome brown and white bird with a golden velvet neck and an elegantly curved long tail. It also makes its nest on floating vegetation. The female jacana is polyandrous and leaves the eggs in search of another partner while the previous male partner incubates them.
The purple moorhen, Indian moorhen and white-breasted waterhen, prefer thick aquatic vegetation to build nests in September and October. The purple moorhen is identified easily by its purple-blue colour, bold red forehead and long bare red leg. The bird is very noisy during the breeding season. The male goes through a ludicrous courtship display, holding water weeds in its bill and bowing to its mate to the accompaniment of loud chuckles. Its nest is a mound of grass, sedge or reed with a slight depression in the centre. A normal clutch consists of four to five eggs, cream to reddish buff in colour. The eggs hatch after 26 to 27 days of incubation.
With water overflowing from the Ajan dam, the tallest of the Indian wading birds, the sarus crane also starts nesting. A remarkable feature is that once a pair is formed, it stays together and breeds for years. The ritual of courtship is a formal activity. Sarus cranes, lonely nesters, build their nests away from the breeding colonies of other birds. I have spent hours observing these birds in their nests. Generally, the nest is built on a slightly raised area surrounded by water. Both sexes participate in the nest building exercise. The birds pluck grass and other small plants and pile them up into a rough mound. They do not carry the material to the nest but collect it at the site itself. Both sexes incubate the eggs and regularly exchange duties at the nest. At every change of duty, they show their devotion to each other by exchanging greetings. They bow their heads, arch their necks and then point their beak towards the sky accompanied by a flapping of wings and trumpeting in unison, occasionally jumping and turning around. The young ones take about 32 days to hatch. The newly-born are about six inches in length but grow rapidly at the rate of 2-2.5 cm per day, and soon gain the size of their parents.
Bharatpur is at its best towards the end of august. The plant growth is still fresh and green. The bushes lining the shores of the lakes are lush with climbers blooming with attractive flowers of red, pink, white and purple. There are more butterflies, beetles and dragonflies than at any other time of the year. The park appears to be readying itself to welcome its winter visitors.
The rosy starlings are the first migratory birds to arrive at Bharatpur from their nesting grounds in Eastern Europe. These birds will spend the entire winter here and return to their breeding grounds only in March-April. Along with the rosy starling, the first waterfowl to reach Bharatpur is the Garganey teal. This small duck is forerunner of the thousands of migratory waterfowl that arrive here for wintering.
By the last week of October, almost all varieties of migratory waterfowl, shore birds and other birds that visit Bharatpur have arrived at the park. The clamour of their voices fills the park. This is the time when the extremely rare Siberian cranes normally come to the park. With their arrival, the atmosphere becomes charged as bird-watchers rush to have their first glance of these VIP birds.
The bill and legs of this white crane are pink red while the eyes are yellow. The tip of the inner wings are black and become visible when the birds is in flight. Its main diet consists of tubers of aquatic vegetation. It also feeds on aquatic incects, mollusks, worms and probably fish. Only one sub-adult accompanies a pair. The immature young ones have a chestnut colour. The cranes usually live in pars or family groups. Within a week of their arrival, the family selects its territory where it does not welcome others.
Siberian cranes have been visitors to the wetlands of northern India over many centuries. The early paintings by Ustad Mansoor, the famous 17th century painter in the Mughal court of Jahangir, depict the Siberian crane. In the past, these birds were seen in about a dozen different places in India. Well-known ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali has also observed these birds in Prayagpur lake in Uttar Pradesh. But the habitat of the bird has been drastically reduced over the years. Siberian cranes in India are now found only in Keoladeo national park. Hero too, their population is declining rapidly. In the winters of 1964-65, over 200 Siberian cranes had come to Bharatpur, while this year their number is down to just three. No definite reason for the decline in their numbers can be given, but the shooting of these birds during their migration appears to be an explanation. Another reason could be inbreeding because of the very small population. Whatever it be, it remains a matter of concern.
I initiated a programme for supplementing the population of the wild cranes in the park at Bharatpur by introducing captive bred cranes from the other population in Russia that migrates to china. The programme was started with the International crane Foundation, USA, with the help of the Government of India, Russia and other international organizations. Efforts, though not successful, are being continued.
Besides the Siberian crane, the eastern common crane also visits the park during the winters. The black head and neck of these cranes, and a red patch of bare skin on the crown, makes their identification simple. A shy bird that does not permit human intruders to get close, it starts trumpeting noisily to frighten them away.
The bar-headed and greylag geese are common winter visitors, whereas the white-fronted geese can be sighted only occasionally. The bar-headed geese breeds in the Himalayas, in Ladakh and Tibet, on islands in marshy lakes or on rocky outcrops along the margins of swamps. As safe nesting areas are limited, the geese nest together in colonies. They have been observed flying at altitude of 27,000 feet over the Himalayas. In Keoladeo, they settle on the open grasslands and feed on grasses, greenforage and gram fields. They roost during the day.
Greylag, another common geese, can usually be seen baking in the winter sun, their necks twisted and heads tucked into their bodies. When disturbed, the geese produce a honking sound, and the flock takes off honking noisily. Its pink beak and legs help in the identification of the bird. The greylag’s large head and bill stand out in silhouette, and in flight. It is also distinguished by its pale grey forewings. The adults sometime have small patches of white on the forehead and frequently have black markings on the belly. The loud call is often trisyllabic, sometimes with extended notes. One flock’s calls are acknowledged by the other flocks.
The number of surface feeding and diving ducks visiting the park is somewhat equal. The pintail is the most distinctive of the common ducks. The male’s white chest and the white stripes extending on both sides of its chocolate coloured head, long, long, thin neck and pointed tail stand out when the bird is on he ground or in the water. The female, like most female dabbling ducks, is brownish and dull in appearance. The pintail devours small water insects along with aquatic vegetation. The wigeon made with its distinctive chestnut head and a broad buff stripe on the crown is easily recognized from a distance. In flight, the patch of white on the upper wing is striking. The wigeon has a short neck and its bill is ideally suited for grazing.
Gadwall ducks are seen in large numbers. Its male has grey flanks and a brownish-grey back, and the bill of the female has conspicuous orange edges. The duck prefers to spend most of its time in water, eating floating vegetation and sometimes diving upended to a depth of 12 inches to feed on aquatic plants.
Shelducks are a rare sight in the park. Both sexes appear similar in colour but the male has a conspicuous red knob at the base of the gill. The female is smaller and lacks the knob. The ruddy shelduck can be identified from a distance by its bright colours. The body of both sexes of this bright coloured duck is rusty brown and the primaries black. There is a narrow band of black around the middle of the neck of the male, and the head is lighten than the body. It breeds in Tibet, Ladakh, Mongolia an central Asia.
The shoveller’s patterning too is distinct. The male has a white chestnut body. It can be distinguished from the other ducks by its long bill. It usually feeds swimming in open waters with the bill half-in and half-out of the water.
Garganey ducks are medium-sized. In the breeding season, the drake’s white eye stripe on its reddish-brown head is conspicuous. It resembles common teal. Using the park as a passage, the duck migrates to southern India. Its numbers in the park are therefore largest in October-November and February-March.
The common or green-winged teal is the smallest of the birds visiting the park. It can be distinguished from other species by size along. The male has a bright chestnut head with a broad green eye stripe that is very distinctive, but the female is drab in colour. It can be sighted feeding in small ponds and ditches or in shallow waters.
The mallard visits Bharatpur in small numbers. The male’s head is green with a white neck ring, the chest a purplish brown, whereas the female’s head is a dull orange with a variable amount of black. Soon after its arrival in Bharatpur, the males begin to display their breeding plumage, and the hectic activity for pairing begins. There is considerable competition for courting females at this time, and three-bird-flights are frequent with two drakes pursuing a flying duck.
All remaining ducks are diving ducks. Evolutionarily, these are considered the most advanced among the wild-fowl, being adapted to an almost wholly aquatic existence. They have large feet and short legs set well back on the body to allow maximum propulsion under water.
The red-crested pochard is a diving duck that behaves like a surface feeder. The male has a bright orange-red crested head, which is a peculiar feature and shines from a distance. Less vocal, this shy duck prefers the farther, quieter open waters. Mostly seen at Mansarovar lake in the Bharatpur, where its number reach 3 to 4 thousand, it is an accomplished diver and submerges for about 25 seconds, reaching a depth of seven-eight feet. It frequently feeds upended and occasionally dabbles n the surface or in mud. The pochard and the tufted duck are other diving ducks that visit the park.
The abundance and variety of wildlife in the Chambal was vividly described by the great Sanskrit poet, Kalidas, in his legendary work, Meghdoot. In the compilation, he urges his messenger to continue to move along the clear stream of the river Chambal and not to get scared of the wild animals and reptiles living there. The poet also mentions a number of terrestrial and waterbirds such as the sarus cranes and egrets, still found in the area.
The Chambal is a tributary of the Yamuna that originates in the Vindhyan hills in Madhya Pradesh. It is one of the few rivers of India that flow from south to north. Dams and barranges like Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar, Jawahar Sagar and Kota barrage have been built on the river to make use of the enormous quantity of water that flows in it. Although several human settlements are located along the banks of the river, the Chambal is among the least polluted of the country’s rivers. The construction of these huge dams has converted, at least in parts, a fast flowing river into a deep, still waterbody. The impact of the creation of these large bodies of water on the flora and fauna of the river has not yet been fully assessed.
The river provides shelter to a large number of rare and highly endangered species like the gharial (Gavialis gangfticus), marsh crocodile (Crocodilus porosus), fresh water dolphins (Plantista gangetica), and otter (Lutra perspicillata) besides a number of species of turtles. Because of excessive hunting and other reasons, the gharial and crocodile were of the verge of extinction during the ‘70s. These species had disappeared from many major rivers of the country. A special programme to save them with international assistance was launched in 1975. The programme could be successfully implemented only because the eggs for captive rearing and release of the gharial and mugger could be collected from the sandy banks of the Chambal. Gharial eggs were taken from Chambal to various centres in the country and hatched. The young gharials were reared till they attained a length of a metre and a half. These reptiles were later released in different rivers of the country.
The riverbed of the Chambal along with a kilometer wide strip of land on both banks has been notified a wildlife sanctuary by the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in their respective area. The Chambal is rich in aquatic fauna as well as birdlife. /Crocodiles and gharials can be seen basking along its banks during the winters. On a boat ride on the river near Rameshwaram, Sawai Madhopur, I had seen flocks of migratory birds including bar-headed geese, ruddy shelduck, pintail and gadwall. I also saw a number of skimmers near the junction of the Banas and Chambal rivers.

Vindhyan and Deccan Trap

The eastern and southern extremities of the Aravalli ranges in Rajasthan mark the beginning of two different geological formations. The Vindhyan hill system and the Deccan trap begin here. The Vindhyan system lies above the older formations and constitutes an unmetamorphosed column of calcareous, arenaceous and argillaceous sediments which cover a vast area, its varying depth peaking at a maximum thickness of 4,300 m. The Vindhyas in the state are part of the Great Vindhyan Basin, extending from Rohtas in Bihar to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan. The contact between the pre-Aravalli and Vindhya is marked y a regional fault, the great boundary fault, which masses the Aravallis against the lower Bhander quartzites of the Vindhyan group. This great boundary fault passes through the Ranthambhore national park in Sawai Madhopur.
Vindhyan sandstone is, by far, the most common rock found in the state, with the exception of the lower Bhander stage which, for the greater part, is calcareous. The sandstone is of a uniform fine grain, preserving the uniformity of texture and composition unchanged over long stretches. The Kaimur as well as Bhander sandstone is a fine textured, soft, easily workable stone with a deep red tint. It passes occasionally into softer shades in Karauli. These stones have a great market for building and other architectural purposes.
The topography is varied. Hill slopes change from very gentle to steep, ending in escarpments forming impregnable barriers. Extensive plateaus, locally called dangs, have been formed y the flat-topped hills of the Vindhyas. With its rich grasses and sparse tree growth, the dangs are a good pasture-land for herbivorous wild animals and domestic cattle. The Vindhyan forests of dhok and other species associated with it provide in excellent habitat for the tiger and its prey species.
The Deccan trap formation occurs in the state’s southern extremities of the Vindhyan an Aravalli ranges. Towards the end of the Mesozoic era, there were extensive eruptions an flows of lava in the peninsula which occlusive lava flows were separated by sedimentary beds. The thickness of the column of lava flows and sedimentary beds varied from place to place. The lava flows gave rise to the flat-topped hills and plateaus with their step-like terraces. The formation as a whole is called the Deccan trap.
Deccan traps are hard, tough, compact rocks. Over time, they have weathered considerably and been reduced to spheroidal blocks. These have an unaltered core and are surrounded y weathered, concentric shells. The black cotton soil of southern Rajasthan owes its existence to the prolonged weathering of the Decan trap. Although extensive area have been put under cultivation, the region continues to have pockets well stocked with teak, bamboo and mixed miscellaneous forests, and a population of wild animals.
The meeting of two different hill systems- the ancient Aravallis and the young Vindhyas with their different geological formations and physical features—has not only resulted in producing the great geological fault, but has also produced a mixed topography that is ideal for the habitation of tigers and their prey species. The herbivores find the Vindhyan grasslands on the dangs ideal foraging ground, while the sharp-ridged valleys with their ense vegetation (locally known as kho) provide safe places for tigresses to breed.
Located in these hills, near the town of Sawai Madhopur, is the ancient fort of Ranthambhore. The massive fort has had a turbulent past. Built in the 10th century by a Chauhan ruler, its thousand-year-old history has witnessed a number of sieges, battles and assaults by invaders, including a number of Mughal emperors. Ranthambhore’s history is replete with tales of bravery and valour, and among them the tenacity with which Rana Hamir kept his word at the cost o his kingdom and even his life, is part of the popular folklore.
The fort and the forests surrounding it came under the control of the rulers of Jaipur in the early-19th century,. In time, the forest area was designated a hunting preserve of Jaipur’s royal family, its wildlife otherwise strictly protected by the rulers. Though a portion of these forests was notified as the Sawai Madhopur sanctuary in 1955, the rulers continued to exercise their privilege till the withdrawal of all such facilities in 1972. In 1973, when Project Tiger was launched by the Government of Indian in collaboration with WWF, the Sawai Madhopur sanctuary was included in the list of nine tiger reserves. In 1980, the forests of Sawai Madhopur were notified a national park and it came to be known as the Ranthambhore national park.
The landscape is dominated by dbok (Anogeissus pendula) trees. Almost pure stands of dbok can be seen in the valleys and on the lower slopes. The higher slopes have a fair mix of salar (Boswellia serrata) and gum trees (Sterculia urens) with their white smooth bark. The valley and the lower slopes also have a good growth of palas (Butea monosperma) also known as the flame-of-the-for-est. Ber (Zizypbus mauritiana) and kbair (Acacia catecbu) trees grow in open, dry areas. The park is dotted with banyan (Ficus bengalensis), peepul (Ficus religiosa) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees, indicating old human settlements. Jamun (Syzygium cumini) trees grow along nullabs to form evergreen belts that provide shade during the summer months. The forests are interspersed with large, open tracts of grasslands. Some of these clearings used to be small villages with cultivated fields that were re-located in the mid-70s. Three lakes in the park have luxuriant submerged and emergent vegetation. Kbus (Vetiveria zizanoides) grass grows abundantly on the periphery of the lakes.
The close canopy of dbok trees prevents the growth of a dense ground cover that could obstruct visibility. A four-wheel drive jeep or Gypsy is best for viewing wildlife in the park. Over the years, the wild animals, including the tigers, have become quite accustomed to the vehicles. When located, they do not shy, and allow visitors a reasonably close view of their routine activities. Yet, to be able to see a tiger is never a sure bet. Their tolerance can sometimes stretch for hours, yet on other occasions, they vanish into the forests for days altogether.
Rantambhore provides an excellent habitat for herbivores. Interestingly, sambar (Cervus unicolour), the largest Indian deer, considered a shy, nocturnal and solitary animal by naturalists in other parts of India, is seen here in large herds. Herds of sambar spend their day in and around the lakes in the park, freely entering the waters to feed on submerged aquatic plants. The spotted deer or cbital (Axisaxis) does not enter the waterbodies. In the company of the langur (Presbytis entellus), it feeds on ber leaves and forest fruits. Large herds of cbital also gather o feed on fresh grasses that sprout in dried lake beds. Among antelopes, the nilgai (Baselapbus tragocamelus) is found all over the park. Its preferred habitat is open country. It can be seen in large numbers in peripheral areas around the Guda and Gilai Sagar lakes. Cbinkara (Gazella azella) is frequently seen on the plateau and on gentle slopes. The wild boar (Sus scrofa) is distributed all over the park and a large number can be seen foraging for tubers in the lake areas. Indian hare, mongoose and monitor lizard are common all over the park while civets, ratel and porcupine are noctumal creatures.
Four species of cats utilize the habitat. The leopard avoids even chance encounters with the tiger, living either on the periphery of its territory, or through selective utilization of the habitat in its absence. The caracal and jungle cat do not come in conflict with the big cats because their prey base is different. Other carnivores include the hyena, the jackal and the ratel (or honey badger).
There is a sizable population of sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) that adapt their diet with change of food according to the season: the jamun, mango, tendu and banyan produce fruit durin the summer, while the winter has only a few species like the ber that bear fruit. Sloth bear often dig for insects and termites. Large holes on the forest roads in Ranthambhore are an indication that bears are around. Sloth bears are short sighted and have poor hearing abilities. Just how poor, I once had the opportunity to observe for myself.
On a morning in February 1990, I saw a large male sloth bear in the vicinity of Rajbagh lake, moving towards Milak talao. It was about to cross the forest road when it probably saw my Gypsy. Instead of crossing the road, it started shuffling slowly along it. I followed it down the road in my Gypsy, maintaining the same pace. When we had covered about 500 m or so, I saw a full grown tigress sitting some 30-40 m ahead. Seeing the bear coming towards it, the tigress growled slowly. The bear, I could make out, neither saw the tigress nor heard its growls. The tigress rose, coughed viciously, and then rushed towards the bear. For a moment it appeared that it was about to attack the bear. Taken by surprise, the bear stood up erect on its hind legs, opened its mouth and fore-paws wide, and charged at the tigress. A battle between the two appeared inevitable, but the tigress chose to retreat hastily, leaping sideways and covering a distance of 15-20 meters before looking back. As soon as the bear saw the tigress stop, it charged again. The tigress, this time, disappeared.
The lakes in Ranthambhore provide an altogether different eco-system. A large number of cbital, sambar and wild boar are attracted by the availability of plentiful food here. While cbital graze on the grass that sprouts along the receding water in the lake beds, sambar and wild attracted by the succulent water vegetation, enter the lakes. Large territories in these high prey density areas are occupied by the most dominant male tiger. Two or three tigresses occupy smaller and mutually exclusive sub-territories within this male territory. These lakes, therefore, serve as the main natal areas, with most breeding taking place here.
I have had numerous occasions to observe the natural staging of dramatic events near these lakes, but among them the spectacular display of tact, speed and strength provided by a resident tigress in the presence of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi stands out. It was a cold December morning in 1985, and I was at Jogi Mahal Forest Rest House where Rajiv Gandhi was on a short holiday. We were talking about the day programme when the sudden but continuous Kbawn! Kbawn/ alarm calls of langurs, joined by the abrupt metallic Pow calls of the sambar, announced the movement of a predator in our close vicinity. Shri Gandhi, I and some others got into an open jeep and moved towards Amarai to locate the predator. We had hardly covered 300 m before we saw Noon, a resident tigress at the park, walking gracefully along the forest road. The tigress had taken her name because of her peculiar habit of moving around the lakes at noon. We started to follow her, maintaining a respectable distance between the tigress and the jeep. Though aware of our jeep, the tigress was unconcerned and kept up her own, leisurely pace. On reaching a nullab that brings in the overflow of Rajbagh lake to Padam talao, she stopped for a moment, looked around, and then left the road to enter the dry nullab bed. The alarm calls stopped and peace returned to the forest. We kept waiting in our jeep. After a while, Noon again started moving towards Rajbagh lake. It was obvious that she was hungry and looking for food. Anticipating noon’s movements, we reached Rajbagh lake ahead of her and awaited her arrival. About a dozen sambar, half submerged in water, were busy feeding on the underwater vegetation. Soon enough, Noon was there too and took cover in the tall, yellow grass. We anticipated that she would stalk the sambar from this cover and make a kill in the water. She had learnt the art of hunting in water from a dominant male tiger named Gengish who had occupied the territory before the present male took over. Instead, Noon came out of the cover and presented a broadside view to the sambar. I thought she had probably given up the idea of making a kill. The sudden appearance of the tigress on the scene created pandemonium all around. The sambar panicked and gave high pitched alarm calls. We were so close to the tigress, we could see her facial expressions. Noon selected her prey and with her eyes firmly set on it, she charged the sambar at lightning speed. The sambar bolted in different directions. The splashing of water followed by a cloud of dust raised by the stampede blurred our vision temporarily. The sambar and the tigress, all disappeared from view. It appeared as though the attempted hunt was unsuccessful because of the ‘faulty strategy’ adopted by the tigress. On moving a little further, we were surprised to see the tigress holding one adult female sambar by its neck. She was actually sitting on the sambar. Meanwhile, other visitors had joined us in their jeeps. We were now a crowd of six jeeps full with people, watching the tigress and clicking camera shutters. The tigress decided to shift her kill to the safety of the tall kbus grass before commencing her meal. Catching the sambar by its neck, she dragged it between her legs, resting twice on the way because the sambar was heavy or she was exhausted. Later, I measured the distance and found that the straight line from where Noon had charged to the point where she caught the sambar was about 150 m. Normally, a tiger brings down its prey in just one or two leaps, and it fails it abandons the attack. A tiger is not built to chase its prey. Clearly, Noon was exhibiting predatory behaviour not usually associated with tigers.
The lakes support a variety of fish, turtles and a large population of mugger or fresh water crocodiles (crocodillis palustris). Scientists believe that these reptiles evolved some 250 million years ago and have survived major environmental changes that wiped out a number of species like the dinosaurs. The crocodile’s senses are highly developed to aid its survival. Its pupils are vertical and open out in the dark to allow in more light. Underwater vision is provided by an extra, transparent eyelid. Its nostrils and eyes are located on top of the snout to facilitate a good view and comfortable breathing while lying in water. It has flaps to close its nostrils and even its ears, an adaptation aimed at its underwater life. Its teeth continue to be replaced constantly throughout its life. Perhaps the most interesting thing is that their sex is determined during the early stages of development in the eggs, by temperature! in biological laboratories, the ratio of males and females can be decided by the turning of the thermostat knob.
Of the three species of crocodiles found in India, only the marsh crocodile is found in Ranthambhore. Shy of humans, it is an elusive creature that disappears quickly when disturbed. During the winter months. It can be seen basking on the lake’s shores. Its menu consists of any animal that it can catch. NaturalistA. Dunbar Brander found the remains of leopards, wild dogs, hyenas, cbttl, sambar, four-horned antelopes, monkeys, ducks, teals, and other birds from the stomachs of crocodiles. In Rambhambhore, I have observedeven the soft-backed turtle being eaten by a crocodile. Driven by hunger, a crocodile will also attack, kill and eat human beings. Till the early ‘60s, the crocodiles at Pushkar traumatized pilgrims taking a dip to the holy lake. They were later removed from Pushkar lake.
In Ranthambhore, crocodiles mostly eat fish. They do a lot of scavenging in the vicinity of the lakes. Crocodile tracks have been frequently observed near carcasses of animals which die a normal death near the lakes. The Ranthambhore crocodiles appear to be gradually becoming more aggressive in attacking larger prey. At times they prey on young sambar that re attracted by the succulent submerged vegetation of the lake, or else kick sharply to get rid of its grip. Interesting encounters between tigers and muggers for the possession of kills have been observed around these lakes.
With a number of lakes and streams, and an abundance of fruit trees, the park is rich in birdlife,. Resident birds include the crested serpent eagle, honey buzzard. Egyptian vulture, great horned owl, brown fish owl, painted stork, black stork, white-necked stork, parakeets, peafowl and kingfishers. The golden oriole is active in summer. Paradise fly-catchers and Indian pitta visit the area during the monsoon. During winter, a large variety of migrant ducks and other waterbirds come to the reserve. Over 270 species of birds have been recorded in the area.
The dbok forests of the Vindhyan hills in the Ramgarh Vishdhan area of Bundi provide a good habitat for wild animals. The Maj river, a tributary of the Chambal, and a perennial stream called Cbautbmata ka Kbal, flow through the area. Carnivorous animals present in the area include the tiger, leopard, striped hyena, jackal and wolf. The area, earlier notified as a wildlife reserve, has now been raised to the status of a sanctuary. It has a very crucial role to play in the preservation of a healthy tiger population in Ranthambhore. There is still a partly-fragmented corridor between Ranthambhore national park and Ramgarh Vishdhari sanctuary through Sawai Madhopur sanctuary and the Kwalji closed area. The regular movement of tigers in these area has been reported. The Ramgarh Vishdhari sanctuary serves as in important connecting link between the Ranthambhore tiger reserve on one side and Bhainsrorgarh, Jawahar Sagar and Darrah wildlife sanctuaries on the other. This link is necessary for the dispersal of young tigers leaving their natal homes in search of new territories.
A linear strip of forests in the Mukundara hills of the Vindhyan system, between Rawatbhata and Gagron fort, forms an excellent wildlife area. The length of the area is trees of kbejri and babul in the rocky wasteland adjoining the agricultural fields provide in ideal habitat for bustards. They share their habitat with blackbuck, cbinkara, jackal, hare, common fox and wild boar. A large number of migratory birds visit the area and its adjoining waterbodies. Till the recent past, this area also had caracal. It has now been declared a closed area where shooting of animals is prohibited.
A long narrow strip of forest adjoining the Chambal and Brahminy rivers is rich in wildlife. A peculiarity is that the forested plateau is about 500 m to 5 km wide and 35 km long. Trees found in the forest include dbok (Anogeissuss pendula), salar, (Boswellia serrata), gurjan (Lannea coromandelica), mango (Mangifera indica), aonla (Emblica officinalis), babera (Terminalia belerica), cburel (Holoptelia integrifolia), jbinja (Baubinia racemosa), kbirni (Writia tomentosa), bija (Pterocarpus marsupitum) and semal (Bombax ceiba). The fauna is typified by sambar, cbital, cbinkara, nilgai, four-horned antelope, wild boar and hyena. The rivers have a healthy population of gbarials and muggers along with large numbers of fish and turtles.
Teak (Tectona grandis) and bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) forests located in the districts of Chittorgarh and Udaipur from the north-western limit of distribution of natural teak in India. The 423 sq km area was notified as a wildlife sanctuary in 1979. The area is rich in vegetation. Hundreds of species of plants are found here, and trees include teak, dbawara (Anogeissus latifolia), tendu (Diospyrus melanaxylon), salar, godal, arjun (Terminalia orjuna), kbair (Acacia catecbu), kalam (Mitragyna parviflora), cburel (Holoptelia integrifolia), mabua (Madbuca indica), babera (Terminalia belerica), sadar (Terminalia tomentos) and roban (Soymida ferbrifuga). A large number of medicinal plants and nine rare species of ferns are also found in the area.
In the past, tigers were found in the area and it was reserved for hunting by the rulers of Pratapgarh and the jagirdars of Dhariawad and Bansi. The area now has 24 species of mammals, 19 species of reptiles and 114 species of birds. Important animal species include leopard, cbausingba, mugger, ratel, pangolin and the flying squirrel. The flying squired is nocturnal by nature. It emerges from its hole at dusk and enters it before dawn. It feeds on fruits and nuts as well as the bark of some trees.
The most distinctive part of the pangolin is its armour of overlapping, protective scales. The animal curls up into an armoured ball for defending itself, exhibiting enormous muscular power. It is not possible, thereafter, to uncurl it. It usually lives in burrows built by the animal itself, and feeds upon the eggs, the young and the adults of termites and ants. It burrows are 6 to 25 feet deep, depending upon the soil condition. On entering the burrow, the animal seals the opening of the hole, making its location difficult.

Wild wonders of rajasthan

Spanning an area of about 3,42,000 sq km, located in north-west India, Rajasthan is among the largest of the country’s states and is remarkably rich in wildlife, its vast size and latitudinal variations (sea level to over 1,700 m) have provided it with varied vegetation- from the semi-evergreen forests of Mt Abu to the almost barren or dry scrub grasslands of the desert and from the dry deciduous thorn forests of the Aravalli hills to the wet marshes of Bharatpur.
The climate of the state may be described as tropical monsoon, but varies considerably from area to area, its extremes of temperature ranging from frost cold winters to scorching hot, dry summers. The average annual rainfall varies from 100-1,500 mm.
Geographically, Rajasthan can be divided into four regions, each distinctive—the desert in the north and west, the Aravalli hills in the middle, the alluvial Indo-Gangetic plains in the east, and the Vindhyan hills and the Deccan trap in the south and south-eastern parts of the state-with ecosystems that support a variety of wildlife. Till a hundred years ago the Asiatic lion, now confined to the Gir forests of Gujarat, and the cheetah, now extinct in India, were found in many parts of the state. Sightings of herds of over a thousand antelopes was not unusual. The range and number of these antelopes has declined with the increase in human population and the ploughing of marginal lands-yet, large herds can still be spotted in the state’s non-forest areas. Tigers and their prey animals, deer and wild bqar, are essentially forest animals and are, therefore, confined to the Aravalli and Vindhyan hills. Two protected regions have been included under Project Tiger. Although the tiger is an elusive animal, yet the chances of seeing one in the dry deciduous forests of Rajasthan is better than in most other tiger reserves.
The leopard, also called panther in India, an adaptable animal, is usually found in the forest areas as well as in the open, degraded forest areas with rocky outcrops adjoining towns and villages. The cunning predator finds it easy to prey on unguarded village dogs, goats, donkeys, calves and poultry.
Besides the two big cats, five lesser cats-caracal, jungle cat, fishing cat, desert cat and rusty spotted cat-inhabit the state. The caracal, found in both the forest and the desert, is a graceful feline with a sandy coloration and black tufted ears. Once trained for hunting doves, pigeons, partridges and other birds by the cheetah-trainers of Jaipur, this agile hunter has now become rate, occasionally sighted in Ranthambhore and Sariska. There have been recent reports of sightings of the rusty spotted cat for the first time in Sariska. It is possible that it is also present in other, similar areas though no such reports are available. The jungle cat is common in most protected areas as well as in the wastelands. The distribution of the desert cat is confined to the arid parts of the state, whereas the best place to spot a fishing cat is the Keoladeo Ghana national park, Bharatpur.
The Rbesus macaque and common langur are found throughout Rajasthan with the exception o the arid Thar desert. Monkeys are unharmed by people because of religious sentiments, resulting in their bold behaviour, especially near towns and villages where they snatch food and offerings from unwary pilgrims. The langur feeds on wild leaves and fruit. A wasteful feeder, it drops large quantities on the ground where it is consumed by deer and wild boar which often move with the langur. The langur sounds the alarm to announce the presence of large predators like the tiger or leopard to warn their prey.
The state provides shelter to around 500 species of birds, some of which are rare and endangered. About 50 per cent of these species are local and the balance migratory, mostly from eastern Europe, northern Asia and Africa. It is easy to spot as many as 100 species of birds in just a day in Bharatpur.
Te Sarus is a handsome crane and the tallest bird in the world to fly. The state’s only resident crane, it is commonly found in its eastern and southern parts. Sarus cranes usually live in pairs or small family groups, but congregate in large groups in the summer months before the onslaught of the monsoons. Even popular legend acknowledges that these birds pair for life, the partner pining away on the death of one. They indulge in an elaborate courtship dance and nest in shallow waters using a heap of grass and reeds. Both partners incubate the eggs. Partners sometimes greet each other while exchanging incubation duties at the nest and perform their courtship dance accompanied with trumpeting.
The majesti great Indian bustard or godawan is the state bird and is a protected species. Easily spotted in many areas in the desert region, the Desert national park near Jaisalmer is a good area to look for it and, during winter, for the migratory Hubara bustard. The lesser florican too is becoming scare in Rajasthan, though a few birds can be spotted during their breeding season (monsoon) in the fields near Nasirabad and Kishangarh, in the district of Ajmer. Because peacocks are considered sacred by Hindus, they are quite common in the forests, fields and villages of the state. In the Kumbhalgarh and Mt Abu wildlife sanctuaries, the graceful grey jungle fowl is to be found in its northern most limit o distribution in India.
The wetlands and waterbodies of Rajasthan provide refuge to a large number of migratory and resident birds. These include ducks, cranes, pelicans, storks, herons, jacanas, ibises and other aquatic birds. The migratory birds are accomopanied by a number o predatory birds. The Siberian crane is the rarest bird that comes to Bharatpur: its numbers have dwindled from over 40 to a mere three birds in less than 20 years, probably because it is hunted on its migration route over Pakistan and Afghanistan. Attempts to induct captive-bred birds in the wild have not succeeded. Common cranes visit Rajasthan in winter and can be observed at the Keoladeo national park. Demoiselle cranes visit western Rajasthan in large numbers.
The hot, dry climate of Rajasthan, its vast sandy areas, hilly tracts and numerous lakes, rivers and waterbodies provide diverse habitat conditions suitable for a number of species of reptiles which include crocodiles, snakes, lizards and turtles. Two species of crocodiles, the marsh crocodile and the gharial inhabit the rivers. The gharial is a fish-eating crocodile and does not attack humans. Once endangered, Rajasthan has contributed substantially in saving the inoffensive gharial from extinction, with most of its country-wide population hatched from eggs collected from the state’s Chambal river.
Of a total of 30 species of snakes found here, 26 are non-poisonous. The four venomous snakes include the Indian cobra (Naja naja), Indian krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Vipera russelii) and Pud (Ecbis caeruleus). Unless provoked or stepped upon, these snakes do not attack humans. The common rock python (Python molurus) is the biggest snake found in Rajasthan. Although pythons can be found in a number of wildlife sanctuaries, the best place to spot them during the winter months is at the Keoladeo national park, Bharatpur. www.rajasthanwildlife.in
Of the 26 species of lizards found in Rajasthan, two are monitor lizards- the Varanus bengalensis widely spread throughout the state, and the Varanus griseus which is confined to the western part o the state. Sanda or the spiny tailed lizard lives only in the drier, western region of the state. A shy vegetarian, it uses its spiny tail for defense against enemies. Rajasthan has only one specie of land turtle, the star turtle (Geocbelone elegans). Confined to the hilly tracts of the Aravallies, it is threatened because of loss of habitat. The remaining 11 species are acuatic, found in the perennial waterbodies of eastern and southern Rajasthan.
The Chambal sanctuary on the eastern boundary of the state provides a suitable habitat for highly endangered, freshwater or Gangetic dolphins, as well as for gharials, crocodiles and a number of species of turtles.
The religious, cultural, social and historical traditions of the people of the state have contributed a good deal to saving its natural heritage. The ethics of conservation are a part of the state’s fabric, nurtured by saints, philosophers and religious gurus. Te desert community shards its scarce resources of food and water willingly with wild animals. Food and water is provided for birds and animals in many parts of India. However, there is no parallel to the feeding of Demoiselle cranes in Kheechan village near Phalodi in Jodhpur district. During migration (September-March) thousands of Demoiselle cranes arrive early in the morning and land in the village to be fed by the villagers. Treated like guests and addressed as friends and companions, they have found a place in the state’s folklore and folk songs.
Communities like those of the Bishnois provide protection to all wild animals in their villages because of their religious faith and belief. The blackbuck and abinkara are considered sacred and aggressively protected. Large herds of these graceful antelopes roam freely in the Bishnoi fields in the desert districts of the state. Even the powerful maharajas of pre-independent India refrained from hunting on Bishnoi lands, respecting the sentiments of these conservators. No hunter or poacher is likely to attempt to hunt in these areas for fear of the wrath of the entire community. Because of this, there are more wild animals to b found in the non-forest areas than in the forest area.
The rulers of the erstwhile states contributed substantially to the preservation of wildlife. Athough they themselves enjoyed sbikar, at the same time they prevented others from the sport. Most of the state’s wildlife sanctuaries and national parks were once their exclusive shooting reserves.